Word substitution is a process in
which people use one word to replace a wordy phrase, to make the sentence
structure more clear. This also makes work more succinct, instead of
convoluted. For example, if you have a sentence that states 'He drives me in a
vehicle around town.' instead you can use 'He chauffeurs me around town.' The
meaning is identical, yet the sentence is shorter. This adds a complexity to
writing, while still making sure the writing is concise.
One of the best ways to improve your
understanding of what you read is to practice substituting your own words for
those of the author. In fact, little real understanding has taken place until
you can take the words that you read, turn them over in your mind until you get
ideas which the author is presenting, and then organize those ideas into your
own words. Thus excelent study-reading technique is to analyze a paragraph (or
sentence) at a time if the material is difficult, to look away from the page,
and to imagine yourself explaining the meaning to a friend. This is similar to
expressing an implied main idea in a paragraph. This section of the chapter
provides helpfull hints on how you can practice restating an author’s ideas.
Double negatives are two negative words
used in the same sentence. Using two negatives turns the thought or
sentence into a positive one. Double negatives are not encouraged in English
because they are poor grammar and they can be confusing; but, they are
sometimes used in song lyrics and informal speech.
Many times when a statement
is made using two negative words (as “this
is not wrong”), the statement becomes easier to understand when it is
restated in your mind in a positive way (as “this
is right”).
Case I : The prefixes dis,
il, im, in, ir, mis, non, and un
mean not in the following words : dissatisfied, illegal, imposible, inadequate,
misspelled, and unsound. Whenever you see not used before one of these words,
simply remove the not and the prefix, and you have the basic idea of what the
author is trying to say. The sentence might have a slightly different meaning,
but the meaning will be close enough to get you back on the track of the
aunthor’s thinking.
Examples :
a)
He is not
dissatisfied = He is satisfied.
b)
This is
not illegal = This is legal.
c)
This is
not impossible = This is possible.
d)
He does
not feel inadequate = He feels adequate.
e)
He is not
an irreponsible person = He is a responsible person.
Scarcely and Hardly can
mean ‘almost not at all’ or ‘only just’. Hardly is much more common than scarcely, and scarcely is
more formal.
We usually put these adverbs
in mid position, between the subject and main verb, after the modal verb or
first auxiliary verb, or after main verb be. In more formal styles,
we put them in front position and invert the subject and verb. If there is no
auxiliary or modal verb, we use do/does/did.
Example :
- She is hardly
the type to be a leader = She is not the type to be a leader.
- He scarcely
had time to prepare his speech = He almost did not have time to prepare for his
speech.
One the most overworked phrases in
advertising is up to. Many careless
readers phrase slip by them without understanding its full meaning.
Statement similar to the following are often
seen in daily newspapers. Analyze them by substituting from zero to for up to.
Example :
- We guarantee that Easy Reduce will help you
to lose up to five pounds a week or double your money back.
We guarantee that Easy Reduce will help you
to toose from zero to five pounds a week or double your
money back.
- We guarantee earnings up to $20 per hour after the completion of our five-week course.
We guarantee earnings from $0 to $20 per hour
after the completion of our five-week course.
- Stop being a slow reader. With our technique
you can quickly learn to read any kind of material at a speed of up to 3,000 and even 4,000 words per
minute with perfect comprehension.
Stop being a slow reader. With our technique
you can quickly learn to read any kind of material at a speed of from zero to 3,000 to 4,000 words per minute with perfect comprehension.
Percentage is a measure of a
portion in relation to a whole, often expressed in relation to how many of
something there are per 100.
When you read a percentage
in a sentence, analyze its implication.
Example :
a. It is clear that 52% of the members are for
this change.
Implies
:
It is clear that 48% of the members are
against this change or don’t care one way or the other.
b. At least 30% of all accident are caused bu
mechanical defects.
Implies
:
At least 70% of all accidents can be traced
to causes other than mechanical defects.
You use less
than to say that
something does not have a particular quality. For example, if you describe something
as less than perfect,
you mean that it is not perfect at all.
When less than is used to state something in a posistive manner when the
real intent is negative, even sarcastic, substitute not in place of less than in order to determine the
basic idea.
Example :
- Your conduct is less than satisfactory = Your
conduct is not satisfactory.
- Her attitude is less than desirable = Her
attitude is not desirable.
- His speech was less than brilliant = ahais
speech was not brilliant.
Reference or lingking words are used to show
relationships between ideas. They can be used to join 2 or more sentences or
clauses (a clause is a group of words which contains a subject and a verb). Reference to someone or something is the act of talking about
them or mentioning them.
I-we-us-our (s) some who this
He-him-his few whom that
She-her (s) many which these
It-its all that those
They-them-their none
Such
Linking words such as those
in the box follow basic patterns :
Model 1 :
A reference word nearly
always refers to the first word in the sentence which it might logically
replace.
a.
Julie is younger than Sally, and record of her birthday will be
supplied to the jury.
Explanation :
Her refers to Julie rather than Sally because Juli’s name
appears first in the sentence.
b.
This new shipment of flour is not us good as the last
shipment of flour, and it should be returned.
Explanation :
It refers to the new shipment of flour because this is
mentioned first in the sentence.
Model 2 :
If the reference word cannot
logically be substituted fro the first noun (name for a person, place, thing,
or idea) in the sentence, try the second.
Example :
a.
Mary removed the diamond from her purse and quickly hid it.
Explanation :
It could not refers to Mary
but could be substituted for either diamond
or purse. Since diamond is the second noun, it
refers to diamond.
b.
The king released three prisoners and placed three goverment
officials in their place.
Explanation :
Their cannot logically be substituted for king : prisoners are mentioned next so their refers to prisoners.
Model 3 :
Who, whom, which, and that
refer to the preceding noun which logically fits the sense of the sentence.
Example :
a.
This is the picture which started the investigation.
b.
She found a stone of great age which is now priceless.
c.
Give me just one clue, any kind will do, that will give us something
to act on.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Mustofa,
Parlindungan.(2007). Reading
Comprehension Skills Book 2. Jakarta : Unindra.
